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第三章 形态学Morphology
一、基本概念：研究单词内部结构及其构成的规则
the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components（组件）–morphemes.（语素） 二、lexical change词汇变化的几种形式 1.发明Invention：Mostly brand names:
例：Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, Lycra
2.混成法Blending：两个单词混合在一起构成新词，取一词之前，另一词之后。 如smoke烟+fog雾=smog烟雾
3.缩写语Abbreviation/截断法Clipping：将一个单词截断成长度稍短的形式 如ad—advertisement等
4.首字母缩写Acronym：将几个单词的首字母组合在一起而形成的新词。 如UN=United Nations
5．逆构词法Back-formation：从一个长单词中山区一个看似是词缀的部分，形成这个长词 的一个变体形式，从而造词。如edit来源于editor，televise来源于television
6．类比造词Analogical Creation：动词变化全部想当然根据规则变化，如work的过去分词想成wrought 和worked两种形式 7.class shift：词性变换
如：hog 名词n：a pig 动词v:to take and keep(all of something) for oneself. 8．借词Borrowing：直接从外语中借用词语的造词过程，如sofa，tofu等 三、classification of words
（1）虚词和实词grammatical words and lexical words： （2）variable and invariable wors
（3）封闭词与开放词closed-class words and open-class words： 第四章 句法学Syntax
一、基本概念
1、Syntax：研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语构成的句子的规则 the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.
2、Gender性：阴性Feminine和阳性Masculine以及中性Neuter； 3、Number数：单数Singular和双数Dual；
4、Case 格：代词——主格Nominative，宾格Accusative，名词——一般格General和所有格Genitive
二、句法关系：
What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples. 1) Syntagmatic relations 2) Paradigmatic relations. 3) Hierarchical relations.
三、句子结构：
向心结构Endocentric construction：具有核心的结构体。分为从属Subordinate（e.g. poor John）和平行Coordinate（e.g. boys and girls）
离心结构Exocentric construction：没有核心的结构体，任何一个成分都无法代替他本身。e.g. on the shelf
四、直接成分分析法Immediate Constituent Analysis简作IC Analysis：通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段 五、句法结构
1．深层结构Deep Structure：抽象的句法结构，位于于语法生成模式的最深层，句子各部分之间的结构关系在这个层次都被清晰清楚表现出来
2．表层结构Surface Structure：通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后结果，是说话人实际说出的句子。
3．系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar：由英国语言学家韩礼德M.A.K. Halliday发展出的一套语法体系，区分转换生成语法——
Halliday系统功能语法：关注语言和社会之间的关系；认为语言是A form of doing, 研究语言与环境的关系；重视个别语言及个别变体的描写 Chomsky转换生成语法：从心理学角度研究语言；认为语言是A form of knowing,着重于语言使用者头脑里的知识结构；重视发现语言的普通现象 第五章 语义学Semantics
语义学Semantics：研究符号与所代表事物间的关系the relationship between signs and the things they refer to，
主要关注语言系统中抽象单位的句子；停留于句子层面 ；研究是静止的、孤立的static and isolated
考点:主要理论的提出者3种 补充：
一、语义学的七种意义——Geoffrey Leech:
七种意义可以被分成三大类：概念意义Conceptual， 联想意义Associative and 主题意义Thematic Meanings
二、语义关系Sense Relations——三种：同义关系Synonymy，反义关系Antonymy，上下义关系Hyponymy
1．同义关系Synonymy：来源有二——Anglo-Saxon Language and Latin;
完全同义的单词不存在，主要差别在于地域Dialect，场合Register，风格Style，正式度Formality，态度Attitude等 2．反义关系Antonymy：
●可分等级的Gradable：最常见的，两词间并非绝对而是相对对立的。E.g. good-bad，long-short等
●互补的Complementary：两词间的对立是绝对的，非此即彼的。E.g. alive-dead， absent-present等
●相反的Converse：并非肯定否定的关系，两个实体之间关系的颠倒。E.g. buy-sell, employer-employee等
3．上下义关系Hyponymy：意义包含的关系，包容者为上义词Superordinate，被包容者成为下义词Hyponym，如animals包含dog、cat等许多 三、几个知识点
1．语义和所指Sense Vs Reference
Sense指代的是语言内部各种因素构成的复杂体系，Reference关心语言项目如单词句子等和外部世界之间的关系，语义学重点关注的是语义关系。 2. 搭配Collocation：指单词之间惯常出现的组合情况，如：“满月”在英语中表示为A full moon，而非a complete moon
3. 成语Idiom：要以整体理解，不是其组成部分的简单相加 第六章 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 1、心理语言学研究的主要问题 2、cognition： 3、metaphor 分类：
4、Categorization: 5、Image Schemas:
第七章 sociolinguistics 社会语言学 一、The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔－沃尔夫假说及其内涵（强势和弱势)
Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world. Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.
Linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.
二、What is sociolinguistics？社会语言学的研究问题
The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between L and society, between the uses of L and the the social structures in which the users of L live.
It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic. —Micro-studies —Macro-studies
三、宏微观社会语言学问题
Micro-studies: To look at society from the point of view of an individual member within it, or a worm’s-eye view of L in use.
Macro-studies: To look at society as a whole and consider how L functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations, a bird’s eye view of the language used in society.
第七节 语用学Pragmatics 一．语用学Pragmatic：
研究如何通过Context来理解和使用语言。Pragmatic研究符号与符号解释者之间的关系the study of the relationship between signs and their interpreters
主要是以实际的话语为研究对象in real-time；注重片段的对话；研究是动态的、情境的dynamic and contextual
二、言语行为理论Speech Act Theory
1．由英国哲学家J. Austin he J. Searle 在20世纪50年代末发展出来的理论，认为语言不仅可以用来表述，更可以用来“做事doing things”，即“to do things with words” 2．言语行为的三种次行为The three sub-acts in the speech act:
●言内行为Locutionary Act：指the utterance of a sentence itself,即“说话”行为本身，话语表示字面意思literal Meaning
●言外行为Illocutionary Act：指说话时，因为言语本身的一些习惯力量而随之产生了其他的一些行为，如警告、允诺等；通常表述的是说话者的交流目的或意图
●言后行为Indirect Speech Act：通过实施另一种言语行为来间接第十是某一种言语行为。E.g. Can you pass me the salt?在传递语言的同时在礼貌地提出请求 三、合作原则The Cooperative Principles——美国哲学家格莱斯P.Grice
1．合作原则the Cooperative Principles：说话人和听话人之间为了达到某个共同交际目标形成的一种默契和原则，主要包括以下四点：
●数量准则Quantity Maxim: 既要实现交谈目的，又不要让自己说得过多，言简意赅。Make it as informative as required, not too much
●质量准则Quality Maxim：不要说不真实false或者缺乏证据lack adequate evidence的话
●关联准则Relation Maxim：说话要有关联relavent
●方式准则Manner Maxim：避免难懂的词，避免含混不清，说话简明、有条理Avoid obscurity and ambiguity；be brief and orderly
2．会话含义Conversational Implicature：当说话人公然不执行某一条原则，且让听话者也知道了他在违反，这时就很有可能产生会话含义，是为让对方体会到言外之意 When any of the maxims is blatantly violated that the hearer knows that it is being violated, then Conversational Implicatures arise
第十章 计算机语言学CAL或者CAI 一、Introduction研究主要问题：
二、Machine Translation语料库定义： 第十一章 Applied linguistics 应用语言学 一、Positive transfer 正迁移与Negative transfer 反迁移:
1）Positive transfer :Transfer can be positive or negative,. Presumably, positive transfer occurs when a first language pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language.
例如,French people find no difficulty in learning the English word ”table” cos it has the same meaning as the French word” table”.
2）Negative transfer 反迁移:：Negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.反向转移即人们常说的干扰
干扰Interference The effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.
二、mistake与Error区别
Error usually arise from the learner’s lack of knowledge; it represents a lack of competence. In other words, the learners does not know the right form or is unable to use language correctly.
Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence. In other words, the learners has already learned the knowledge or skill but simply fails to function correctly due to lack of attention or other factors. 三、输入假说(input hypothesis)
四、CA(constrastive analysis 对比分析)与EA（error analysis 错误分析）区别
CA: a way of comparing languages (L1 and L2) in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. The main assumptions underlying CA are:
1) language is habit and language learning involves the establishment of a new set of habits;
2) Previously learned L1 interferes with the learning of L2; the major source of error in the production of a second language is the native language;
3) Errors in L2 can be accounted for by considering differences between L1 and L2; 4) Transfer occurs from L1 to L2.
5) Teachers should focus on areas of negative transfer.
EA: In the literature on error nanlysis, errors and mistakes are often differentiated. In terms of the source of errors, errors are often divided into intralingual errors and interlingual errors. In terms of the nature of errors, errors often fall into five parts: omissions, additions, double markings, misformations and misorderings. The procedure of error analysis consists of the following steps: recognition, description, explanation. 五、几种大纲 Topics:
1. Input and language learning
2. Interlanguage in language learning 3. Communicative competence 4. Syllabus design
5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis
第十二章 Theories and Schools of Modern linguistics
1. Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔：the founding father of modern structural linguistics现
代结构主义语言学创始人 1)提出语言和言语的区别
2)Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory.词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分
2. Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基：the founder of generative grammar生成语法创始人 1)提出关于语言能力与语言运用的区分概念 2)1957年提出转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar简作TG Grammar的研究模式
3)普遍语法的概念
3． M.A.K. Halliday英国语言学家韩礼德：
1)Systemic-functional Grammar，系统功能语法
2)与Chomsky提出的转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar相区分