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第一章 语言的本质
一、语言的定义 1. ★What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication(Wardaugh). This definition has captured the main attributes（属性）of language. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. and finally language is used for human communication. 二、区别性特征（Design Features）
1、任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式
The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication（复杂） and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2、双重性Duality： 语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning） “By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization” (Lyons, 1982:20)
Meaningless sounds → words→ phrases → sentences → discourse/text
Advantage of duality: the great productive power (a large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements --- tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language) Animal communication systems lack duality 3、创造性Creativity：
duality and recursive nature of language;
He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught is a school which was known for its graduates who ?
Most animal communication systems are highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive;
Information conveyed in animal communication is severely restricted.
4、移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等
Human languages enable their users to talk about objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
Human language is stimulus free and animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Displacement makes it possible for human beings to talk and think in abstract terms. It benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Honeybees?
(limited information; genetically; not arbitrary) 5、文化传递cultural transmission
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. ( culturally transmitted) Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.
The general pattern of animal communication is that the signals used are instinctive and not learned.
三、语言的功能（Functions of Language）
1. 传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function
2. 人际功能 Interpersonal Function： 人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能 people establish and maintain their status in a society with language. 3. 行事功能 performative function：
现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses
to change the social status of persons.
4. 表情功能 Emotive Function： 表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory
expressions
a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.
5. 寒暄功能 Phatic Communion： 应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好
啊！” 等等
To create and maintain social relationship between speakers. No factual content is involved. 6. 元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现
实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书” to talk about language itself.
7. 娱乐功能recreational function
verbal dueling, poetry口头决斗，诗歌 四、语言学中几对基本概念的概念区分
1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究Descriptive
? Prescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的
语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作 ? Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作
的
2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic
? Synchronic：以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象，如现代汉语研究、莎士比亚时
代语言研究等
? Diachronic：研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律 3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）
? Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑
中存储的词语-形象word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定
? Parole：指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语actual use of
language，是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体。
4． 语言能力competence与语言运用performance（由Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基提出）
? Competence：指理想语言使用者关于语言规则的知识储备 ? Performance：指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用
第二章
一、基本概念及区分
1、Phonetics音位学 着重语言的自然属性physical properties，关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音，是音位学研究的基础；
2、Phonology语音学 着重强调语音的社会功能social functions，对象是某种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音 3、Phoneme音位：在语言中具有区别表义单位作用的最小语音单位the smallest unit that is capable of distinguishing or contrasting words，E.g: pig 和big中的/p/和/b/就是独立的音位。
4、Allophones音位变体：没有区分表义单位作用的音段（segment） E.g：同样/s/音，在shoe和she中读音却有差别，若把两个有差别的/s/音调换位置，并不会改变单词意义，只是有点别扭。所以，这两音就叫做/s/的音位变体。
5、Minimal Pairs最小语音对：两个词互相之间的差别只是一个音段，就是最小语音对；可以确定某个音段是否为音位E.g：pen 和pin就是M-p，可以确定/e/和/i/ 6、stress：
7、Intonation：intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.
8、Tone：tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to
contrast meaning at word level.
二、关于辅音Consonants
1．概念：发音过程中产生了气流阻塞的那些音There is an obstruction of the air at some point of the vocal tract.
2．分类：三类划分——发音部位Places of articulation 、发音方式Manners of articulation和清浊特征
? 按照发音部位places：
(1)唇间音bilabial：/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/ (2)唇齿音labio-dental：/f/ /v/
(3)齿间音dental：/ 6/ /咬舌Z/ (4)牙龈音alveolar：/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/ (5) 龈腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar： (6)硬腭音Palatal：/师/ /3/ /ts/ /d3/ /j/ (7) 喉音glottal：/h/
? 按照发音方式manners
(1)完全阻塞辅音complete obstruction/
(2)爆破音plosives/stops: /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/ (3)鼻音nasals：/m/ /n/ /n长/
(4)擦音fricatives：/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /师/ /3/ /6/ /咬舌z/ /h/ (5)破擦音affricates：/ts/ /d3/ (6)流音liquids : /r/ /l/
(7)滑音/半元音glides/simivowels：/w/ /j/ (8)接近辅音approximants (9)中央流音central (10)边流音lateral： 3． 特征：
（1）清浊特征Voicing
?浊辅音voiced consonants ?清辅音voiceless consonants
体现形式：声带是否震动in the vibration of the vocal cords E.g：/p/ 和/d/
（2）送气特征Aspiration
articulated with a strong air stream pushing out 只有爆破音和破擦音有送气与否的区别 不造成词义改变，是非区别性特征
E.g：/p/ 在please中送气，在speak中不送气 （3）区别性特征Distinctive Features
可以用来区分不同音位（phonetic voicing）如清浊特征，但送气特征就不是 区别性特征一般都是双元Binary的 (+voicing/ -voicing) 三、关于元音Vowels
1． 概念：发音中没有出现任何气流阻塞的音A sound pronounced with no obstruction of
the air stream 2． 分类：舌翘位置the part of the tongue that is raised、舌高the extent to which the tongue
rises和嘴唇的形状the shape of the lips
(1）舌翘：front——/i/ /e/ /a/； back——/o/ /u/ (2)舌高：high——/i/ /u/；mid——/e/ /o/；low——/a/ 3 （3）唇形：unrounded——/i/ /e/ /a/；rounded——/o/ /u/
/a/: front, low, unrounded /e/:front, mid,un rounded /i/: front, high, unrounded /o/: back, mid, rounded /u/: back, mid, rounded
3. 标准元音Cardinal vowels：由一组任意确定的元音组成，这些元音都是作为抽象的单
位存在，为描述现实语音中的元音提供一个参考框架，由琼斯提出。
4. 双元音Diphthongs：有两个音组成——纯元音pure vowel+短促的滑音brief gliding
sound，由前音滑向后音，又称元音过渡Vowel Glides 四、Suprasegmental Phonology超音段音位学
1． 概念：对大于音段的语音单位如音节、单词和句子的语音特征进行的研究。
2、分类，主要包括：重音Stress，音长Lenth，音高Pitch和此三者共同作用的结果—语调intonation
重音：分为单词重音和句子重音
? 单词重音：位置固定，可分为三级——零zero重音，次secondary重音，和主要
primary重音 ? 句子重音：
结构重音structural：句语句之间的对比产生的某一个单词重音的变化或某一个一般不重读的单词的重读，如ThirtTEEN girls and thirty boys中的TEEN重读
强调重音contrastive：指纯粹出于交际需要对句中的任意部分进行强调，句中的任意音节都可能成为重读音节
语法重音grammatical：约定俗成的语法成分功能决定的重音，如重读实词，轻读虚词等 音高：指某个语音单位（音段或者超音段）因为发音时声带震颤的快慢而导致的声音高低之分。某些语言中，音高变化起区别性作用，如汉语的四声tone 3、音节结构：（1）音节头onset——一般为辅音 （2）节峰/节核Peak/nucleus：核心部分，由元音担任，不可或缺 （3）节尾coda：一般为辅音