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语言学概论
第一章：
1、what is language?
A:Language is a system of arbitray vocal symbols by means of which the member of a speech community communicate ,interact and transmit their culture.It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the useres share a broad understanding of human interaction . 2、Design features of language?
(1) Arbitrarine: The fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their
meaning .However there seem to be different levels of Arbitriness.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. B: Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: C:Arbitrariness and convention: Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative ,and conwentionality of language makes learning a language laborious.
(2) Duality二元性 : “By DUALITY is meant the property of having two levels of structures ,such
that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own ptinciples of organization.”By CREATIVITY we means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursivveness .
(3) Displacement替代性:DISPLACEMENT means that human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of conmmunicationPhonetics and Phonology : It is generally agreed that linguistics should at least five parameters, namely ,phonological, morphological,syntactic,semantical and pragmatic.
Phonetics:PHONETICS studies speech sounds,including the production of speech ,that is how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received,the description and classification of speech sounds,words and connected speech,etc.
Phonology:PHONOLOGY studies the rules governing the structure,distribution,and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
3、Descriptive描写的 vs.Prescriptive规定的
The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.”ere are obvious administrative and education advantages,in the modern world,in standardizing the principal dialect that is employed within a particular country or region .”But the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with descpiption instead of prescription. SYNCHRONIC限于一时 description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation .However ,the fiction of synchronic description is essencial to linguistics.
DIACHRONIC历时 linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. 4、Language &Parole
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as LANGUE and PAROLE. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible date,the lingustic ‘s proper object is the langue of each community,the lexicon.grammar,and phonogy implanted in each individual by his upbring in society and on the basis of which he speaks and understand his language.
Competence: A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.
Performance: refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.
第二章
Consonants辅音：are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
Vowels元音:are produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. Eight primary cardinal vowels are:[i][e][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ]
Phonemes音素:refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”:the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to sounds responsible for the contrasts.例/p/、/l/
Allophony: the phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions.例[p=,ph]belong to /p/;[l,]belong to /l/. peak,speak;lead,deal.
Assimilation同化: nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Regressive回归 assimilation: a following sound is influencing a preceding sound Progressive进步 assimilation: a preceding sound is influencing a following sound.
第三章
Morpheme词素: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Inflection变音: is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.
Word-formation: process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. Including compound and derivation.
第四章：
1、SYNTAX句法 is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language ,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
Syntactic relation can be analysed into three kinds:positional relations, relations of substitutability,and relations of co-occurrence.
Position Relation ,or word order to the sequential arrangement of the words in a language .If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language ,one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.
Relation of Stustitutability Firstly ,the Relation of Stustitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly,it refers to groups of one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
By the Relation of Co-occurrence one means that words of different sets of clauses may
permit ,or require ,the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
第五章：
1、Meaning of “MEANING”:7 types of meaning:(1)Conceptual meaning (2)Connoative meaning (3)Social meaning (4)Affective meaning (5)Reflected meaning (6)Collocative meaning (7)Thematic meaning
2、Sence Ralations
Words are in different sence relation with each other .There are three kinds of sense relation recognized ,namely ,sameness relation,oppositenness and inclusiveness relation.
(1) Synonymy同义:SYNONYMY is the technique name for the sameness relation.English is said
to be rich in synonys.Its vocabulary has two sources :Anglo-Saxon and Latin. But to synonymy is rare.The synonyms are all context dependent. Thirdly,there are dialectal differences.
(2) Autonymy反义:is the name of for oppositeness relation.There are 3main sub-types:gradable antonymy,complementary antonymy,and converse antonymy.
A:Gradable antonymy:First,as the name suggest,they are gradable.Scond,antonymy of this kind are graded againsr different norms. Third,one member of a pair,usually the term for the higher degree,serves as the cover term.
B:Comlementary antonymy:In constrast to the first typr,the members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other.That is ,they divided up the whole of a semantic field completely. (3)Hyponymy上下位关系: the term HYPOYMY is of recent creation,which has not found its way to some small dictionaries yet.But the notion of meaning inclusiveness is not new.
第八章
Cp: cooperative principle. Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose of direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
Characteristics of implicature: 1)calculability: the fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and hearers are able to understand them suggests that implicatures.2)cancellability: also defeasibility. 3)non-detachability: a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. 4)non-conventionality:
Conversational implicature: a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.
语言学与英语学习的关系：Linguisics helps you understand how languages work from biological, social, cultural and psychological perspectives. If you enter this field, you can either pursue academic research about a language, or become a very acomplished english teacher.