·¢²¼Ê±¼ä : ÐÇÆÚËÄ ÎÄÕÂÈçºÎѧϰ¡¶Ó¢Óï´Ê»ãѧ¡·¸üÐÂÍê±Ï¿ªÊ¼ÔĶÁ
borrowed later from the Norse.
µÚ¶þÕ£ºThe development of the English vocabulary The Indo-European Language Family
It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it 5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar . (Öص㣺Óïϵ»®·ÖµÄ±ê×¼£©
What is the criteria to divide language families ?
The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar
(Öصã)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(Ñ¡ÔñÌâÄÚÈÝ£º) Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian. ¡®Indo-European¡¯ Á½´ó·ÖÖ§£º 1.Eastern set 2.Western set
Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.
In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic £ºScottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton
The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic.
The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English.
With Vikings¡¯ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English language.
It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English.
Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.
Öصã¾ä: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England
¹ÅÓ¢Óï×î´óµÄÄ£ºýÐԵĸÅÄîÀ´×ÔÓÚ (scripts )
¹ÅÓ¢ÓïÕýÒòΪ³öÏÖÓ¡Ë¢Êõ²Å´òÆÆÁË ( early scripts) Sound and form ÕæÕý´ïµ½Í³Ò»ÊÇÔÚʲôʱÆÚ£¿
.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )
Èç¹û´Ó´Ê»ã±ä»¯µÄ½Ç¶È¶øÑÔ£¬Modern English ÓÖ¿ÉÒÔϸ»®·ÖΪ early period , modern period.
*ÏÖ´úÓ¢ÓïÔçÆڽ׶ÎÊôÓÚÄÄÒ»ÖÖÎÄ»¯ÏÖÏóµÄ·¢Õ¹Ê±ÆÚ £¨ÖØÒªµÄÑ¡Ôñ»òÌî¿ÕÄÚÈÝ£© Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance Modern English period ÓÐʲôÑùµÄÍâÀ´ÓïµÄ½øÈ룿
The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period ÏÖ´úÓ¢ÓïʱÆÚ£¬Ó¢Óï´Ê»ã´óÁ¿·á¸»»¹ÓÐÁíÍâÒ»¸öÔÒòÊÇ (colonization) The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from (Colonization )
The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( ÖØҪѡÔñ»òÌî¿ÕÄÚÈÝ) Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary Three main sources of new words :
1)The rapid development of modern science and technology 2)Social, economic and political changes;
3)The influence of other cultures and language 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing
2)Semantic change £¨»¹°üÀ¨ÍâÀ´´ÊµÄSemantic loans £© Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer
ÍâÀ´´Ê¿ÉÒÔ±»³Æ×÷borrowed words , Òò´ËÓÖ¿ÉÒÔ±»³Æ×÷ . Öصã¾ä£ºborrowed words are also known as loaned words . »Ö¸´¹ÅÓ¢ÓïµÄÓôÊÊÇÃÀ¹úÓ¢ÓïµÄÒ»´óÌØÉ«
Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially true of American English.
Ó¢Óï´Ósynthetic language ·¢Õ¹µ½present analytical language ÊÇÔÚÓ¢ÓïµÄÄÄ Ò»¸ö½×¶ÎÍê³ÉµÄ£¿
´ð°¸£ºModern English period
ÎÄÒÕ¸´ÐËʱÆÚ£¬Ç¡·êÓ¢Óï·¢Õ¹µÄÄĸö½×¶Î? ´ð°¸£ºEarly Modern English period
ÔÚÓ¢Óï·¢Õ¹¹ý³Ì ÔÚÄĸö½×¶Î³öÏÖÈýÓﶦÁ¢µÄÏÖÏó£¿ French, Latin, English in Middle English period
easel, port, freight, ³öÏÖÓÚÓ¢Óï·¢Õ¹µÄÄĸö½×¶Î£¬ÊôÓÚÄÄÒ»ÖÖÍâÀ´´ÊµÄÒýÈ룿 ´ð°¸£ºMiddle English , Dutch
ÔÚÓ¢Óï·¢Õ¹µÄijһ¸ö½×¶Î£¬ÓÐÒ»ÖÖÓïÑÔ½øÈëÓ¢ÓËüÒ»¹²´øÀ´ÁË2500 ¸ö´Ê»ã£¬Õâ ÖÖÓïÑÔÊÇʲô£¿
´ð°¸£ºDutch (Ç°Ä꿼Ìâ)
¾ÝÏÖ´úÓïÑÔѧ¼ÒµÄͳ¼Æ£¬Ó¢ÓïÖÐÄ¿Ç°ËùÕ¼±¾×å´ÊµÄÊýÁ¿ÓжàÉÙ? ´ð°¸£º50,000 to 60,000
ËûÃǵÄÀ´Ô´ÊÇ(Anglo_Saxon tongue )
µÚ¶þ´ÎÊÀ½ç´óÕ½ÒԺ󣬴óÁ¿ÍâÀ´´Ê½øÈëÓ¢ÓïÖУ¬È磺Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu, ÕâЩ´ÊÊôÓÚÓ¢Óï´Ê»ã·¢Õ¹µÄPresent - day English Vocabulary ×¢Ò⣺µÚ¶þÕ³ö´óÌâµÄÄÚÈÝÎ޷ǾÍÊÇÇë¼òÊöÓ¡Å·ÓïϵµÄ·¢Õ¹Óë×é³É¡£
Old English ºÍ Middle English ×î´óµÄstriking distinction ´æÔÚÓÚÄÄÒ»¸ö·½Ãæ? ´ð°¸£ºOld English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.
ÎÄÒÕ¸´ÐËʱÆÚ£¬ÄÄÁ½ÖÖÎÄ»¯µÃµ½Á˸´ÐË£¬Õâ¶ÔÓ¢Óï´Ê»ãµÄ·á¸»¾ßÓÐʲôÑùµÄÓ°Ïì? ´ð°¸£ºGreek , Roman culture
ijЩϣÀ°´Ê±»ÒýÈëµ½ÁËÓ¢ÓïÊÇÔÚʲô½×¶Î? ´ð°¸£ºModern English
Ê®ÁùÊÀ¼Í£¬ÓÐÒ»ÖÖй¤Òµ³öÏÖ¶Ô´Ê»ãµÄ·¢Õ¹²úÉúÖØÒªµÄÓ°Ï죬ÕâÊÇÄÄÒ»ÖÖindustry? ´ð°¸£ºPrinting
Õâµ¼ÖÂsound and form ³öÏÖconcord , ³öÏÖstandardization. µÚÈýÕ¸´Ï°:
The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes) The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)
In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)
Deer ¸´ÊýûÓбä,»¹ÊÇdeer, sheep ¸´ÊýûÓбä,»¹ÊÇsheep, Òò´Ë,ÕâÖֱ仯±» ³Æ×÷(zero derivation) Ãû´Ê½âÊÍ:
Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes.
In other words, the morphemes is ¡¯the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs, e.g.
the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches
It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish ¼ò´ðÌ⣺ what are the types of morphemes ? ( ´ð¼ò´ðÌâʱ,Ãû´Ê½âÊÍ) ´ð°¸£ºFree morphemes and bound morphemes Free morphemes :
1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.
2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.
3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root .
4) free morphemes are free roots.
bound morphemes: 1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound..
2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.
3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix affix ·ÖΪÁ½Àà: inflectional and derivational affixes.
Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.
Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.
2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and
suffixes.
root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word
3) a ¡¯root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed¡¯
stem : 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root
morphemes as in a compound like handcuff.
2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in
mouthful, underestimate.
3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
ÎÊÌ⣺Stem ºÍ root ÓÐÒ»¸ö×î´óµÄÇø±ðÔÚÄÄÀï? ( Á¬×ÅÁ½ÄêûÓп¼¹ý) ´ð°¸£º a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can
be added.
ÎÊÌ⣺Çë¼ÓÒÔÇø±ðÏÂÃæÁ½¸ö´ÊµÄÌØÕ÷: nation , dict Çë¼ÓÒÔÀíÂ۵ķÖÎö? Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence,
Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains
Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .
ÎÊÌ⣺·ÖÎöÏÂÃæÒ»¾ä»°: He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village,
too heads are better than one. Çë´Ó¹¹´Ê½Ç¶È·ÖÎöÒÔÉϵÄÀý×Ó, cleverer , better
cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes )
better ( good , well µÄÌØÊâ±ä»¯) It is allomorph of good and well. µÚËÄÕÂ:
ÎÊÌ⣺ÔÚÓ¢ÓïÖÐ,Ö÷ÒªµÄ¹¹´Ê·¨·ÖΪÄļ¸ÖÖ? ´ð°¸£ºÓÐÆßÖÖ:
1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending
ÓÐÈýÖÖ×î³£ÓÃ: affixation , compounding and conversion ÎÊÌ⣺ÓÉרÓÐÃû´Ê±äΪÆÕͨÃû´ÊÊÇ´ÊÒå±ä»¯µÄÄÄÒ»ÖÖ?