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Chapter Four Syntax 一、定义
1.句子sentence
A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
2.语言运用Linguistic competence
The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.
3.谓语Predicate
The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.
4.定式子句Finite Clause
A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone.
5.从属子句Embedded Clause (E C)
In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C .
6.主要子句Matrix Clause
In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.
7.层次结构Hierarchical structure
The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.
8.语法关系Grammatical relations
The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.
9.句法类型Syntactic category
A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.
10.表层结构S-structure
A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
11.深层结构D-structure
A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
12.普遍语法General grammar
A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.
13.移动α 规则Move α
A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.
14.句法移位Syntactic movement
Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position.
15.转换原则Transformation rules
Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
16.X标杆理论X-bar theory
A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X”→（Spec）X(Compl).
一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式 X”→（Spec）X(Compl)
a: X” b: X” Spec X’ Spec X’ X’ X compl X complement
NP ’the student who likes linguistics’ consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句是补足语。
二、知识点
1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.
2.我们把syntax的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.
3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.
4.判断题：the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
5.判断题:A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood. 一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。
6.句子的分类 simple sentence
Types of sentences coordinate or compound sentence Complex sentence
简单句---It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
并列句合成句-It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “but”, ”and”. ect.
复合句—It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. 复合句的特点：
⑴An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause
⑵Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as ”that”
⑶An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes. 子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。
7.when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence.
8.The hierarchical nature of sentence structure句子结构层次特点
sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together.
9.The points at which the tree braches at various levels are called Branching nodes分叉点
10.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.
11.句法类型
Major …主要词类open ,can add new words Lexical category 名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,Adv Syntactic Minor… 次要词类close, words are fixed Categories 限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int Phrasal category
Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word(called a lexical category) or a phrase(called phrasal category)that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence.
12.短语类型
Noun Phrase NP
Phrasal Verb Phrase VP Categories Preposition Phrase PP Adjective Phrase AP
13.The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each moun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to ’who’ does ’what ’to ’whom’.
14.we usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of.
15.Combinational rules must be small in number so as not to create extra burdens on the human memory. also these rules must be powerful enough to yield all the possible sentences, and rule out the impossible ones 组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。
16.rules an generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.
循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。
17.移位类型
Syntactic NP-movement=t’s involving the movement of a noun phrase. Movement 名词短语的移位
WH-movement=It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.
陈述变疑问句
AUX-…=the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position.
助动词移位到句首的移位
18.普遍语法的广义原则
General Principles of Universal Grammar: Case Condition和Adjacency Condition 格条件---a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position.
名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。
相邻条件—a case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other,it explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.
格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。
19.Universal Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves增and减set on the Adjacency condition. with English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增 value, while for French-type language, the parameter is set to减value.
三、问答题
1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.
⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind ⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.